Beowulfs Manifestation of Hrothgars Lessons :: Epic Beowulf essays

Beowulfs Manifestation of Hrothgars Lessons We have non seen great things done in our time except by those who have been considered contemptible the symmetry have failed. --Machiavelli, The Prince In this statement --and in the rest of his major work, The Prince -- Machiavelli attempts to justify the cruelty of a drawing card it is requirement, he seems to say, to be feared in order to succeed. It is doubtful that the renaissance political theorist ever read the poem of Beowulf in any case, he did not rattling much with its message. For if its titular hero followed the maxims of Machiavelli, Hrothgar, the loss leader of the Danes in the poem, contends that it will channel upon presumption and, ultimately, Beowulfs downfall. Hrothgars message is exactly contrasting to that of Machiavellis. His political theory states that it is necessary to be good-willed to ones people and to refrain from being blinded by pride in order to be a successful leader. Fortunate ly for Beowulf, during his fifty-year sovereignty as the prescript of the Geats he follows Hrothgars sagacious lesson consequently, he is compassionate leader who never lets his pride overcome his judgment. Throughout his reign as the ruler of the Geats, Beowulf is a benevolent leader - bringing peace and power to his acres as Hrothgar instructs him to after the great warrior defeats Grendels mother. Hrothgar relates to him a story about the Heremod, office of the Danes, who brought little joy to the Danish people, only death and destruction (1711-1712), and that suffered in the end for having plagued his people (1720-1721). That is, Hrothgar claims that one cannot be a successful leader unless one is virtuous ruler. Furthermore, he tells Beowulf to learn from this and understand true cling to (1723-1724). Therefore, Hrothgars intends that this information be carried on with Beowulf. During his final moments, after he kills the cherish hording dragon, Beowulf refle cts on his reign over the Geats, and those reflections demonstrate that he understands the importance of honor and honor. He claims that he cared for and stood by things in his keeping, never fomented quarrels, never swore to a lie (2736-2739). His goodwill and righteousness is highly regarded by the warrior, for he continues, the formula of mankind need never blame me .

Compare and contrast the presentation of oppressionin I Am Not That Ess

equalize and contrast the presentation of oppressionin I Am not That Woman and clam up I Rise.The poems I am studying are I Am Not That Woman by Kishwar Naheedand Still I Rise by Maya Angelou, both in the twentieth century. some(prenominal) poets have based the poems on their own experiences ofsuppression in their unalike cultures and they both continue to endwith feelings of hope.The poems show the different reactions andattitudes of two real different women who in similar circumstances. InI Am Not That Woman, the poet has been ladened in her culture ofthe Asian society. By this she has been oppressed by the tralatitiousvalues of the Eastern culture nevertheless especially by her laminitis andhusband. She is too trying to overcome this suppression but is not sincerely sure where she wants to go next with her life. In Still IRise, she has been suppressed by the black-and-blue people of South Americabut she has overcome this and thinks of herself as superior to thewhite raci sts. I will begin by discussing I Am Not That Woman.The main theme to the poem is set in the Asian society, Easternculture. Although there is a new theme introduced in all verse, theyall add to the main theme of oppression. The woman is in the placementof being forced into having an arranged marriage and not having any liberty because of it. The poet seems bitter towards her father andhusband. She seems strong because she has got through her problems sofar and is provoked and resentful about the whole situation. She seemsadamant to not let it regain to her for untold longer.The poem has no structure and no rhyming scheme, because written asfree verse. Each verse of the poem is say towards a certainperson in particular - her fath... ...ks around with soak and dignity, with the referenceto the oil wells as her acting as if she is rich, with the tomography ofher literally having oil wells in her living room. She expressesherself effectively by the repetition of the title, Sti ll I Rise inthe poem, where she means she is rising above the white racists.In conclusion I like both poems equally but think that Still I Riseis the to a greater extent effective poem. I think this because the poet is strongerand more confident in what she has written about. The language used inStill I Rise is easier to understand at first glance than I Am NotThat Woman which would also make people prefer Still I Rise becausenot as much needs explaining or working out. Although I prefer theimagery in I Am Not That Woman such as the garden which was usedearly on in the poem and then mentioned again later on.

Defining Race and Ethnicity Essay

The use of the terms race and ethnicity is varied. The two terms are use as if they are identical. The casual and common appearance of the terms posture by side in the public discourse may dissuade people from regarding them as distinct terms. Race is based on the preface of biological and physical differences. the concept of race included any inbred zing of groups of people which held them to display inherent, heritable, persistent or predictive characteristics, and which thus had a biological or quasi-biological basis.Ethnicity is an embodiment of values, institutions, and patterns of behavior, a composite unanimous representing a peoples diachronic experience, aspirations, and worldview. Ethnic classification, either outwardly imposed or intrinsically engendered, often defines peoples social rank to a group. Aside from social constructs, ethnicity is innately more central to human being experience and identity than race. I do non believe that these concepts should be im portant to society.Racial and ethnic categories are neither fixed across societies nor within a society. Racial and ethnic categories are fluid and ever-changing depending on the socio-political context of a society at any inclined time. Ethnic and racial differences do not inherently lead to conflict. Instead, these differences erect take on a social meaning of hierarchy pencil lead to conflict when divided groups fail to negotiate.In such cases, the imbalance of power, not the racial or ethnic differences per se, is the underlying cause of the conflict. In to each one of these cases, it is critical that the topic of race and ethnicity receives continual examination. The ideology and myth of racial and ethnic differences cannot be validated to support or legitimate superiority, privilege, or conflict as has often been the case in both historical and global contexts.

Romantic Poetry Analysis

Amber Lee Anardi Gabriel Decio ENG251-001 16 April 2013 The Dominating Themes of personality and Nostalgia The amatory Period began in the late 18th century and emphasize everything that the previous age had not. Ro publictic ideals that focused on the he artifice everywhere the head and the rude(a) hu firearm over the civilized man influenced the literary works of the Romantic Era. Themes of nostalgia and character dominated the works of William Wordsworth, William Blake and Percy Bysshe Shelley.Read withal Critical appreciation of the metrical composition Old Ladies Home.These two estimates go hand in hand when interpreting romantic poetry, with the development of the feverish industrial cities umteen poets longed for the simplicity that temper had to offer. Poems such as Wordsworths Resolution and Independence, Coleridges The donjon and Shelleys To Night embody the ideas of nature and think backnce. William Wordsworth is verbalize to be one of the most influential poets of the Romantic Era. Wordsworths religion of nature was influenced by his babehood, growing up in the Lake District of northwestern England and finished his travels to foreign countries. Resolution and Independence was indite in 1802, roughly four years into the Romantic Period. The poem is slightly a man walking through the countryside after a darknesstime of rain, he reflects on the livelihood of the creatures that surround him and initi in ally share their enjoyment until his mind wanders to the dejection he feels for what man has become. He comes across an hoar man, who he envies because his job is to collect leeches for medical purposes. The traveller envies the honest-to-goodness man because he gets to work in nature.The theme of nature is prevails in this poem as well as the theme of nostalgia. Wordsworth writes The birds are singing in the distant woods over his own sweet voice the Stock-dove broods the Jay makes get along as the Magpie chatters and all the air is filled with pleasant dissonance of waters. Wordsworth describes the sounds of nature that the traveler hears, clearly showing his appreciation of nature when he describes the birds singing as pleasant noise.As the poem continues the traveler mien embodies the same joy that the creatures of nature are feeling, yet his jubilation diminishes when he reflects on what man has become. The pleasant season did my heart employ my old remembrances went from me wholly and all the ways of men, so vain and melancholy. The traveler is displeasured with what man has become, describing him as vain and melancholy, such displeasure can be interpreted as the theme of nostalgia. William Wordsworths Resolution and Independence embodies the tyrannic themes of nostalgia and nature in romanticism.Samuel Taylor Coleridge is better known for his influence on literary criticism rather than his poetry. Between 1797 and 1803 Coleridges best poetry is said to be produced. The Dungeon was written in 1 797 and is about a livelihood in which criminals are forced to reside in. The first verse of The Dungeon is dreary and very critical of using supports to punish criminals. The vehemence on industrialized cities and the insignificance of rural areas and the upset it causes romantic poets can be seen in this poem. Is this the only cure?Merciful God Each pore and natural outlet shrivelld up by Ignorance and parching Poverty, his energies roll back upon his heart, and stagnate and corrupt till changd to poison, they break out on him, exchangeable a loathsome plague-spot Coleridges text is trying to convey that when man is separated from his natural environment he might turn to crime. The theme of nostalgia can be seen in The Dungeon through Coleridges emphasis on nature over civilization, because industrialism is a new concept for romantics.Essentially Coleridge believes that nature betters a man and believes that sending a criminal to a dungeon only turns them into savages rather than letting them line up harmony in the natural world. With other ministrations thou, O Nature Healest thy wandering and distemperd child Thou pourest on him thy soft influences, the sunny hues, fair forms, and breathing sweets, thy melodies of woods, and winds, and waters, This cite can be interpreted as Coleridges way of expressing how nature can heal man.Samuel Taylor Coleridge exemplifies the themes of nostalgia and nature in his poem The Dungeon through his message of nature having the power to better man. Percy Bysshe Shelley is categorized as the meliorate romantic poet due to his quest for truth and justice. Shelleys poetry poorly(p) in 1816 until he died in 1822. The poem To Night is about Shelleys longing for the day to end and night to come. Shelley wants to escape the day and find refuge in the night, although he never explains why in his poem.In the terce stanza Shelley writes When I arose and saw the dawn, I sighed for thee when light rode high, and the dew was g one, and noon lay heartbreaking on flower and tree, and the weary Day turned to his rest, lingering like and unloved guest, I sighed for thee. When Shelley writes and the dew was gone it shows that he is fond of the nature that occurs at night such as the dew on the grass when the night ends. In the second stanza Shelley anticipates nights arrival Wrap thy form in mantle gray, star-inwrought Shelley describes another aspect of nature at night the cast out changing colors and the emerging stars.Themes of nostalgia can also be detected in To Night but are interpreted differently in comparison to other poems. Sleep will come when thou art fled of neither would I ask the boon I ask of thee, love life Night swift be thine approaching flight, come soon, soon Shelley longs for the night on a daily basis the difference of nostalgia in this poem is that his melancholy demeanor is relieved when night begins unlike other poems that reminisce on the old ways of life. To Night exemplifi es a different translation of the romantic themes such as nature and nostalgia.Themes of the Romantic Era located the literary works during the 18th and 19th centuries. The most influential theme was nature and poets developed this theme through their works. Nostalgia was also a coarse theme in romantic literature, as industrialization grew in popularity, many romantics opposed the new way of life and longed for the way things used to be. William Wordsworths Resolution and Independence, Samuel Taylor Coleridges The Dungeon, and Percy Bysshe Shelleys To Night all exemplify the themes of nature and nostalgia through their poetry.

Test Inventory Management

size up Management2. With the advent of low- apostrophize computing, do you see alternatives to the popular first principle classifications? The alternatives would be that by minimizing the sums of the set-up cost and carrying-cost, you would also minimize the overall be.5. rationalize the major assumptions of the basic EOQ model.1. Demand for an item is known, reasonably constant, and independent of decisions for early(a) items.2. Lead time, the time between placement and receipt of the order, is known and consistent.3. reception of armoury is instantaneous and complete, the document order arrives in one bunch at one time.4. Quantity discounts be nor possible.5. The only variable costs ar the set-up and holding costs.6. Stockouts faecal matter be completely avoided if orders are fixed at the right times.7. What is the relationship of the economic order quantity to learn? To the holding cost? To the set-up costs? The relationship is that with both EOQ and demand, that th e demand for the items are known, and independent of decisions. The holding costs and set-up costs are reduced comfortably over time by planning for them correctly.8. What are the advantages of cycle numerate?Inventory items are counted, records are verified, and inaccuracies are periodically documented . You can then trace the inaccuracies and the appropriate remedial action is taken to witness the integrity of the neckcloth system.9. What impact does a decrease in setup time have on EOQ? It is an excellent way to reduce inventory investment and to improve the productivity.11. What is meant by service level? It is the concern of worry in maintaining an adequate service level in the face of ambivalent demand.17. How are inventory levels monitored in retail stores?Inventory is monitored at retail stores using the Perpetual inventory system. This keeps track of each withdrawal or addition to inventory continuously, so that the records are always correct.1. Develop an inventory plan to help ZBC. I think that an EOQ inventory would be peachy for ZBC because of the demand for the item is known, lead time is known and consistent, receipt for inventory is instantaneous, quantity discounts could be possible, stockouts could be completely avoided if the orders are placed at the right times. This would reduce their loss of money for not having the inventory on hand that they need. Which would mean bigger profits for them, and by ordering some(prenominal) they would be able to receive discounts on the inventory items.2. Discuss the ROPs and fit costs. Well the ROP at ZBC needs to be addressed because the items ordered are taking way to long to get which makes the lead time much longer than what it needs to be, and in return it is making the total cost rise because of the money they incur for each order they make.

Planning function of management for Boeing Essay

The purpose of this paper is to explain the preparation functions of management for the organization cognize as Boeing. Boeing is an aero length social club they build rider airplanes, military aircraft, satellites, and missiles. Boeings mean functions of management is influenced by upcountry and outdoor(a) factors. These factors such as the economy and competition directly influence the strategic, tactical, operational, and accident planning. Boeing is the largest manufacturer of satellites, commercial jetliners, and military aircraft in the world. The company is also a global market leader in missile defense, human space flight, and launch services. Chicago-based Boeing has an extensive global reach with customers in 145 countries.Boeing operates chthonian the strictest principles of corporate arrangement. With 152,091 employees, Boeing posted 2004 revenues of $52.45 Billion.(FCSR, 2008)The state of the economy is a huge out-of-door factor of how the Boeing organization op erates both, strategically and tactically. In 2001, the economy was hit unverbalized and along with many other companys Boeing was suffering financially. Boeing was relieve when they were offered a contract with U.S. Air force worth $49.2 billion (Advantage headache Media, 2007). Boeing also teamed up with Saudi Arabia Airlines in 1995 (Boeing, 2001).Boeings competition is some other external factor that influences the organization both tactically and strategically. The company known as Airbus is Boeings biggest competition. Airbus is the leading manufacturer of commercial jets (Yahoo, 2008). Recently Boeing has been having internal issues affecting their assembly line and has cause a shortage in production which in turn has been affecting deadlines. With Boeing experiencing problems clients ready been turning to Airbus to get together their needs. Lockheed Martin is Boeings biggest competition in defense systems (Yahoo, 2008).Currently Boeing and Lockheed Martin are working t ogether on some projects to help meet the high demand.The government is other factor that influences how the organization operates. Regulations affect the amount of output that Boeing burn manufacture. When Boeing de presss a new plane, forwards Boeing can test fly them they must primary obtain a certificate issued by the U.S. Government The U.S. Government has designed this system of indispensablenesss to insure that each new plane is safe before the plane is flown. There are many safety requirements that must be met before the plane is approved to be flown these requirements are enforced by U.S. Federal Aviation Administration. These requirements affect the production of Boeings airplanes by cause a delay before the aircraft can be cleared for use.The planning function of management is affected by several well-grounded issues. In 2005, a lawsuit was filed against Boeing. The lawsuit, filed in federal court in Kansas, alleges that Ducommuns Gardena plant made more than 1 ,900 defective parts used on at least 32 of Boeings airplanes, including 737s, 747s, 757s and 767s. The planes were delivered to the U.S. Air Force and Navy, as well as foreign military forces in Japan and Italy between March 1998 and November 2004. (Pae, 2005)The three employees who filed the lawsuit, were members of a Boeing audit team, contend that the parts did non conform to Federal Aviation Administration requirements. Boeing was aware of the problem unless continued to sell the airplanes, falsely claiming that they were FAA approved, according to the lawsuit. The suit alleges that Ducommun kept both impersonates of books for manufacturing parts fake books for Boeing and the FAA and real books for itself. (Pae, 2005)Boeing is a company that is respected for assemble social accountability. Boeing has joined the earthing for Corporate Social Responsibility, and is now authorise to display The groundwork for Corporate Social Responsibilitys coin Seal of Approval as a S ocially Responsible Company. (FCSR, 2008) The Foundation for Corporate Social Responsibility encourages corporations to be Socially Responsible, and to assist them in achieving commercial success in ways that respect ethical value, citizenry in need, their communities and the environment. (FCSR, 2008)Boeing has a very strict code of ethics polity that is in place to protect both the corporations interest and the interest of its employees. Boeing employees are required to obey all aspects of the code of ethics set onwards by the company. The code of ethics adopted complies with the standards set forth in the New York Stock Exchanges corporate governance rules. The Boeing Company will administer ethics and compliance programs to promote its consignment to integrity and values as set forth in the Boeing values and Code of Conduct and to ensure compliance with laws, rules, and regulations.These programs will inform employees of company policies and procedures regarding ethical descent make out and help them to resolve questions and to sketch guess violations. Managers are responsible for supporting implementation of ethics and business conduct programs, and monitoring compliance to the companys values and ethical business conduct guidelines through such programs. Managers are responsible for creating an open and straightforward environment in which employees feel comfortable in bringing issues forward. avenging against employees who raise genuine concerns will not be tolerated. (Boeing, 2008)All employees must sign and abide by the Boeing Code of Conduct, which requires that they understand the code, and ask questions, seek guidance, report suspected violations, and express concerns regarding compliance with this policy and the related procedures. (Boeing, 2008)To support the requirement for complete and accurate financial records and reporting, all employees of the Finance organization have an additional Code of Conduct for Finance. (Boeing, 2008)In Conclusion, There are several issues that can impact outcomes for management planning for the Boeing Company such as legal issues, ethical issues, and social responsibility, Along with factors can influence the companies planning operations both strategically, and tactically. The examples of these factors given in this paper are the economy, the government, and Boeings competitors such as Airbus. Even though Boeing has had its ups and downs from production problems to several legal issues Boeing has remained a globally known leader in their industry, respected for their cooperate social responsibility and known for their strong code of ethics.ReferencesBoeing. (2008). Ethics. Retrieved family 14, 2008, from http//www.boeing.com/companyoffices/aboutus/ethics/Boeing. (2008, February). Retrieved September 14, 2008, from Foundation for Corporate Social Responsibility http//www.fcsr.plPae, p. (May, 2005). Boeing sued by three workers. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved September 14, 2008, fro m http//articles.latimes.com/2005/ may/28/business/fi-ducommun28Vandore, E. (2008, January 17). Airbus, Boeing Swamped by Orders. Retrieved September 14, 2008, from San Francisco Chronicle http//www.sfgate.comYahoo. (2008, March). The Boeing Company Profile. Retrieved September 14, 2008, fromYahoo http//biz.yahoo.com/ic/10/10221.html

Regional Interactions Essay

As in the previous chapter, this time pointedness witnessed a tremendous process in long-distance change due to improvements in technology. Trade by means of the Silk Road, the Indian nautical, the trans-Saharan distribute route, and the Mediterranean sea guide to the crack of ideas, religions, and technology. During the ut virtually cognize as Pax Mongolia, when peace and order were make believeed in Eurasia due to the vast Mongol conglomerate, clientele and cultural interaction were at their height. Major technological developments much(prenominal) as the compass, change shipbuilding technology, and gunpowder shaped the development of the human being.AP EXPERT TIP When you be reading approximately a given situation, try to visualize where in the world those developments are taking place. Alter inbornly, reproduce a blank world map and mob nones in the proper geographic region as you read. The movement of slew greatly shifted our world. Nomadic separates s uch as the Turks, Mongols, and Vikings, for instance, interacted with faret guide deal frequently because of their technologyleading to further change and development. One of the clear up epidemic diseases in history, the bubonic plague (or Black Death), mobilize during this period due to the movement of wad and their increased interaction. Religions such as Islam, Christianity, and Buddhism promoted the equivalence of alone believers in the eyes of God. And though patriarchal values act to dominate, the monastic life available in Buddhism and Christianity come toered an alternative path for women. The send of religion aided by the increase in change over ofttimes acted as a unifying force, though it sometimes ca utilize conflict. Christianity and the Church served as the keyizing force in due western atomic number 63, and end-to-end due east Asia, the spread of Confucianism and Buddhism solidified a cultural identity. The new religion of Islam created cultural w orld kn have as dar-al Islam, which transcended semi semipolitical skiparies. The political body structures of m any(prenominal) areas adapted and changed in response to the new conditions of the world. Centralized imperiums like the knobbed, the Arab Caliphates, and the thnether and vocal dynasties construct on the successful models of the past, while decentralized areas ( atomic number 74ern Europe and lacquer) veritable political organizations that more effectively dealt with their specific conditions. The movements of the Mongols altered much of Asias political structure for a time, and recovery from that Mongol period introduced political structures that delineate some(prenominal) areas for centuries to follow.Look more asian foot binding bear witnessPOST-CLASSICAL CHINATang Dynasty (618 to 907 CE)political DEVELOPMENTFollowing the f solely of the Han dynasty, chinaware transcended to regularise by regional small kingdoms for the next 400 years. It was not un til 581 CE that the Sui dynasty emerged, using Buddhism and the Confucian civil service carcass to bring legitimacy. The Sui dynasty started the construction of the Grand Canal and launched numerous campaigns to expand the empire. Rebellions overthrew the Sui in 618. The Tang dynasty that followed was more focused on scholars than on soldiers. It did, however, expand its territory beyond main push down China proper to Tibet and Korea. It also completed the Grand Canal and offered live to Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism. The capital, Changan, was a major political revolve well-nigh, which abroad diplomats visited from the convoluted and Arab worlds. In the centerfield of the eighth century CE, Tang spot declined as higher revenuees created latent hostility within the population. Peasant rebellions direct to more independent regional rule and to the abdication of the emperor. After this, at that place was a period of rule by regional war passkeys for the next 50 years.s tinting DEVELOPMENTThe dynasty effected forces machine garrisons, which allowed for the protection and security of Silk Road change. An equal field system was open in which all peasants were given earthly concern in return for tax in grain and unpaid labor at death they were to return the basis to the government. Changan was a major trading center and cosmopolitan urban center. The West Market there flourished with Indian, Iranian, Syrian, and Arab traders and their goods. By 640 CE, its population reached 2 million, making it the largest city in the world. Neighbors, such as lacquer or Siam, became tri merelyary states to China.ethnical DEVELOPMENTCulturally, the Tang dynasty was heavily influenced by the spread of Buddhism. Empress Wu started a teach dedicated to Buddhistic and Confucian scholarship and art. Toward the end of the dynasty, Buddhism, a outside religion, was attacked for its economic and political power. From 841 to 845 CE, an anti-Buddhist campaign destr oyed many monasteries. In the brace of this backlash, neo-Confucianism developed Confucian scholars wanted a new form of Confucianism that would define outside influence. The result was an integration of Buddhist and Confucian ideas. Some ideas include individual self-improvement, the goodness of human beings, and the goal to strive and perfect oneself. Womens marriages during the Tang dynasty were arranged within their own social elucidate, but u women could own property, move about in public, and even remarry. Poetry flourished with such poets as Li Bai and Du Fu. form Dynasty (960 to 1279 CE)POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTBy 960 CE, the vocal dynasty had re-established centralized control over China. The civil service exam system retained great prominence, successfully checking the power of the aristocracy. The numbers de-emphasized a multitude approach and instead re-established the tribute system with its nomad neighbors. This involved stipendiary off the nomads with such gifts as bolts of silk to keep the peace. The metrical composition, however, experienced military and economic problems. The scholar-controlled master copy army was often ineffective, and too much paper notes in circulation caused ostentation. By 1126 CE, they had broken the northern fractional of the empire to nomads. The Southern Song continued to flourish until 1274, but military threats continued, and finally the greatest of all northern groups invaded in the 1200s, absorbing the Song dynasty into the new Mongol Empire.ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTRice production doubled due to new fast-ripening sieve from Champa. Internal trade from the Yellow Sea and Grand Canal flourished due to the increased number of merchants and the growth in population. The capital of Kaifeng became a manufacturing center with its production of cannons, movable type printing, water-powered mills, looms, and high-quality porcelain. China had more per capita production than any opposite country in the world. Minted copper coins were used as money and eventually were replaced with paper currency.Officials collected taxes in cashnot goodsand garner of credit (known as flying cash) were used by merchants. The Southern Song established their capital at Hangzhou, and commerce soared. With their cotton sails and magnetic compasses, the Song had the most powerful navy in the world. As a result, the dynastys power shifted from the north to the south, and the Song became leaders in trade. Song goods make their way to Southeast Asia, India, Persia, and East Africa.CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTDuring the Song dynasty, women were entitle to keep their dowries and had access to jobs as merchants, but they also were subject to a practice called foot binding. The practice originated with the aristocratic class and was viewed as a sign of wealth and status. Girls as young as six had their feet bound in order to secure a better marriage.Tang and Song Innovations The early use of the compass to aid maritime nav igation A water-powered clock, demonstrating facility in mechanical engineering The invention of gunpowder frontmost demonstrated during the late 1000s CE, the explosive combination of sulfur and saltinesspeter would alter weapons technology forever and lead to the first cannons, rockets, and incendiary bombs. Philosophyneo-Confucian judgment delved into ancient texts and further codified conventional Chinese philosophy it blend Confucianism with elements of Daoism and Buddhism. A printing press with movable type Stylized and typic landscape painting Paper money, letters of credit (flying cash)JAPAN ( rough 800 to 1200 CE)POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTJapans geography as a group of islands led to the development of small isolated, independent communities. Clan members cooperated with each opposite much like a large, extended family. By the 600s, the Yamato clan had weird and cultural influence over other clans and wanted to copy Chinas model of empire building. Its leaders began to call themselves emperors of Japan. The Fujiwara clan, which dominated surrounded by the ninth and twelfth centuries CE, sent emissaries to China and modeled their capital, Nara, on Changan. They could not, however, successfully introduce a Chinese-style bureaucracy, and a strict ancestral hierarchy developed instead.During the Kamakura Shogunate (11851333 CE), the emperor and his court unbroken their capital in Kyoto, and a military dictatorship existed, ruled by powerful landholding clans. A Japanese form of feudalism developed in which the Shogunsupreme ecumeniccontrolled the centralized military government and divided the land into regional units establish on military power. The regional military leaders were the daimyo, and the warriors who fought for them were the samurai. Over the centuries, the samurai military class developed a strict warrior code called bushido. The emperor remained in power throughout this period, but served only as a symbolic figurehead. Many Shog uns were overthrown but the emperor was not.ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTJapan was a predominantly agrarian society with a topical anaesthetic artisan class of weavers, carpenters, and ironworkers. Trade and manufacturing developed more in the Kamakura Period, when it focused on markets in larger towns and foreign trade with Korea and China. nearly people were peasants who worked on land that was owned by a lord or by Buddhist monasteries. though their freedom was limited, peasants could keep what was left of their harvest after paying their tax quota. Those unable to pay their taxes became landless laborers known as genin and could be bought and sold with the land.CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTJapan adopted many foreign ideas but remained culturally true to its own traditions. According to Shinto, the religion native to Japan, everything possesses a spirit, or kami. Natural forces and nature were awe-inspiring, and shrines were strengthened to honor kami. The first ruler from the Yamato clan claim ed descent from the supreme Shinto deity, the Sun Goddess. Japan was also conceptively influenced by Korea and China.It adopted Chinese technology, Chinese script, and Buddhism (though Japan developed its own version of Buddhism, which added a strong aesthetic dimension, known as Zen Buddhism). In the Heian period (794 to 1185 CE), contact with China was knap off, and the culture turned to expressing Japanese values. Participating in a plush court lifestyle, women dominated literature. The Tale of Genji, for instance, was indite by Lady Murasaki. Wives ancestral land from their husbands and often owned land, and priestesses dominated religious life. Over time, though, women lost power and influence.ISLAMIC CALIPHATESIslam The ReligionPrior to the spread of Islam, Arabs lived in separate, loyal, tribal groups and were often involved in terrestrial and maritime trade. The city of Mecca later on developed into an central religious site with a large inflow of traders and pilgri ms. The Kaaba, a black meteorite placed in the Great Mosque by Abraham, was in the center of the city, and most people worshipped idols. Muhammad was born in 570 CE in Mecca. When he was 40, the angel Gabriel appeared to him and revealed that he had been selected to receive a augur message that there was only one all-powerful and all-knowing God, Allah, and that Muhammad was to be Gods messenger. Muhammad preached that all people were to submit to Allah and that everyone was equal in the eyes of Allah.Muhammads message was not met with enthusiasm in Mecca, and he fled to Medina in 622 CE, a journey known as the hegira. In Medina, he was viewed as a prophet and a political leader. Muhammad taught that he was the in the end of a long line of prophets from the Jewish and Christian scriptures that included Abraham, Moses, David, and Jesus. In 630 CE, he and his followers returned to Mecca, captured the city, and destroyed religious idols. After his death, Muhammads revelations wer e written down by his followers in the Quran. The word Islam means complaisance to Gods will. Islam is a universal religion that is string out to everyone. Islam appealed to women because they had equal status to men before God, they could keep their dowries as wives, and there was a prohibition on female infanticide.POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTBy the time of Muhammads death, almost all of Arabia was under Moslem control. in that location was dissension, however, over his successor. One group, the Shia, believed that the leader should be a descendant of Muhammad. The other group, the Sunni, preferred the community of Muslims to determine who would succeed him. The leader of the Muslims, the caliph, was both a political and spiritual leader.Five Pillars of Islam1. Statement of faith There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger.2. Pray five times a daylightlight facing Mecca.3. Give alms (charity) to the poor.4. Fast during the holy month of Ramadan.5. Make a pilgrimage, o r hajj, to Mecca during ones lifetime if able.After the first quadruplet caliphs, the Umayyad clan took control in 661 CE and transformed the caliphate into a hereditary monarchy, with its government centered in Damascus. They continued on to conquer Syria, Egypt, Persia, and voluminous territory in West Asia, North Africa, and Spain. Their military skills, the soldiers commitment to Islam, and the declare of plunder helped them in these conquests. The Umayyad Caliphate set up a bureaucratic structure in which local administrators governed their areas. All cultures were tolerated as long as people obeyed the rules, paid their taxes, and did not revolt. Arabic became the language of administration, business, law, and trade.The Abbasid clan overthrew the Umayyad dynasty in 750 CE and moved the capital of the empire to Baghdad, a political center and the plunk for largest city in the world next to Changan. Eventually, the only remaining Umayyad prince settled in Spain and estab lished a separate caliphate there. Berber tribesmen controlled much of the northern African coast, and the Mamluks revolted and gained control over Egypt from 1250 to 1517 CE. The term Dar al-Islam, or all under Islam, refers to those areas in which a Muslim is welcome.ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTTrade flourished throughout the caliphate and improved irrigation led to productive agriculture and an increase in tax revenues. Artisans flourished in the cities, making pottery, fabrics, and rugs. Paper was imported from China, and soon paper mills were set up. The vast Islamic empires also spread many types of agriculture, including sugarcane, citrus fruits, and coffee. Islam spread to West Africa through trans-Saharan trade, to East Africa and Southeast Asia through Indian Ocean trade, to Central Asia and China along the Silk Road, and to India through the migrations of the Turks.CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTMosques, hospitals, schools, and orphanages were reinforced throughout the empire. Intellectual achievements included the development of algebra, the concept of longitude and latitude, and the study of classic philosophers such as Aristotle. The House of Wisdom, built in Baghdad in 830 CE, obtained Greek and Persian texts and translated them into Arabic. In art and architecture, the use of images was forbidden instead, geometry and calligraphy were used to beautiful effect.Byzantine Empire (300 to 1453 CE)POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTThe Byzantine Empire, a continuation of the east Roman Empire, was the only survivor from the Graeco-Roman age. The Roman Empire had officially been divided in 375 CE, with the western half severely weakened because the east produced the majority of grain and controlled the major trade routes. Emperor Justinian, who ruled from 527 to 565 CE, tried unsuccessfully to reconquer Western Rome. His body of Civil Law (Justinians Code) was written, and he replaced Latin with Greek as the official language of the empire. The central government was a hereditary monarchy. It do law, had an efficient military, oversaw effective land distribution, and had a bureaucracy that answered to the emperor. The emperor was considered a co-ruler with Christ and appointed the patriarch. Military generals were appointed to rule, and free peasants were given land for military service.ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTIts location on the Mediterranean Sea contributed to strong trade in the Byzantine Empire. Silkworms were smuggled out of China, which allowed a Byzantine silk industry to develop. Artisans produced glassware, linen, jewelry, and aureate and silver work.CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTMost people spoke Greek. In theory, there was social mobility through the bureaucracy, army, trade, or service to the Church, but in reality, mobility was limited. Constantinople was the political and intellectual center, with libraries containing Greek, Latin, Persian, and Hebrew texts. The Byzantine and Roman Christian churches had been growing apart since the fall of Rome, and a dis agreement over the worship of iconsimages of saintswas the final straw. The Pope and the Patriarch excommunicated each other, and in 1054 CE, the church officially split into the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. This Eastern Orthodox form of Christianity later spread to the Slavonic people and Russia.DECENTRALIZED STATES IN EUROPEWestern Europe aboriginal Middle Ages (around 500 to 1000 CE)POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTWestern Europe remained politically decentralized. The Franks came closest to re-establishing imperial control with the leadership of Clovis and, later, the Carolingian Empire of Charlemagne. Europe developed a feudal system in which land was given to vassals in exchange for military service, allowing them to gain power. The centralizing power during this period was the Church, and by the 13th century, the Church owned one-third of all the land in Europe.ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTDuring this time, peasants became serfs they had the right to work a portion of th e land and could pass that right on to their children, but they could not leave the land. They could keep a portion of what they grew, but the majority of their pay went to the lord. Serfs paid taxes for use of the lords mill, had to work on the lords lands, and had to provide gifts on holidays. These estates became large walled manors that were economically self-sufficient. They maintained mills, bakeries, and breweries. They had their own private armies served by armor-clad knights. The introduction of the heavy plow led to an increase in agricultural production.CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTBeginning in the 12th century, the code of conduct called chivalry developed. It stressed honor, modesty, loyalty, and duty. Monasteries were the dominant possess of social and cultural life, and they often had large landholdings. Monks preserved classical acquaintance by hand-copying great literature and philosophical works.NOMADIC CULTURESVikings (Dates of Influencearound 800 to 1100 CE)The Vikings were a nomadic group who had settled in present day Scandinavia. In order to supplement their farm production, they conducted seasonal raids into Europe and despoiled towns. Using small and maneuverable boats, they terrorized coastal communities in France, Scotland, Ireland, and England. The Vikings eventually evolved from plunderers into traders and established communities in Scotland, northern France, and Eastern Europe. Scandinavia was gradually Christianized during this period.These outstanding seafarers also traded actively throughout the North Sea and Baltic Sea. In the 800s, they colonized Iceland and Greenland, and around 1000 CE, they established a colony that lasted only a fewer decades in Newfoundland, modern Canada. The transplanted Viking settlements in France became known as Normans (or Northmen). In 1066 CE, a Norman lord named William from northern France invaded England with his army. He overcome the Saxons and established Norman power in what is now Britain. Turks (Dates of Influencearound 1000 to 1450 CE)The Turks, a pastoral nomadic group from the central Asian steppes, began gradually to migrate out of the steppes at the end of the first millennium. They were often hired by Muslim leaders as mercenaries, or hired soldiers. The Seljuk Turks, who had reborn to Islam, invaded Abbasid territory and captured Baghdad in 1055. The caliph was left as the spiritual authority of the empire, but the Seljuk Sultan became the secular monarch. By 1071 CE, they defeated the Byzantine Empire and took most of Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). The Afghan Turks were nomads from Afghanistan and began a series of raids into India in the 10th century. They looted cities for gold and jewels and destroyed Hindu temples and then left. It wasnt until the 12th century that they invaded and then started to govern. This started the Delhi Sultanate, which ruled northern India from 1206 to 1526 CE. These Turks introduced a strong Muslim presence in India.Mongols (Dat es of Influencearound 1200 to 1550 CE)A consequence pastoral nomadic group from the central Asian steppes, the Mongols would go on to create the worlds largest empire. These nomadic herders lives revolved around their sheep, goats, and yaks for food, clothing, and  security their camels for transportation and their horses for mobility. This clan-based society was organized around bloodlines. Genghis Khan successfully coupled the non-homogeneous Mongol tribes, and their greatest strength was their mobility and military power. Once united, Genghis led his troops into Central Asia, Tibet, northern China, and Persia. In 1215 CE, the Mongols attacked and destroyed present-day Beijing. The Mongol charge continued into Afghanistan and Persia, yet by 1227 CE, the Great Khan died, and his empire was divided amongst his four sons.CHINA THE YUAN DYNASTYIn 1276 CE, Genghis Khans grandson, Kublai Khan, defeated the Southern Song dynasty, and for the first time, China was under foreign rul e. Khan created a Chinese-style dynasty, adopting the Chinese name Yuan for it, with a frigid and regular tax payment system and a strong central government. Foreigners, not Chinese, were employed in the bureaucracy, and the civil service exam was not used. The Chinese were subject to different laws and were separated from the Mongols. Connecting Beijing to Vienna was a communication system using horse relays and 1,400 postal stations. In time, overland and maritime trade flourished, and though the Mongols were not directly involved in the trade, they welcomed merchants and foreigners. Merchants converted their foreign currency to paper money when they crossed into China. center field EAST THE ILKHANATESIn 1258 CE, Kublais brother, Hulegu, defeated the Abbasid Caliphate. The Mongols in the Middle East employed local bureaucrats in the government and converted to Islam by 1295 CE. The local rulers were permitted to rule, as long as they delivered the tax revenue and maintained order . Though they did not support agriculture, they did facilitate trade, and Mongol culture often combine with that of the conquered people. As the Mongols continued west, they met with their first and only major defeat. The armies of the Mamluks, a break ones back dynasty in Egypt, defeated the Mongols in 1260 CE and stopped the movement of the Mongols in that region.RUSSIA THE GOLDEN HORDEThe Mongol ruler Batu conquered and ruled Russia but kept a large number of the local rulers in power. The taxes on the peasants were heavy, but they were collected by Russian bureaucrats. Trade was supported, and although these Mongols were Muslim and conversion was encouraged, Christian missionaries were allowed to visit.PAX MONGOLIAAt the peak of Mongolian power, with huge areas of Asia and Europe under one rule, there was a period called the Mongol Peace. For about a century, Mongol rule united two continents and allowed for relatively safe trade and contacts between very different cultures. I t did so by eliminating tariffs. During this period, the Silk Road trade reached its greatest height. Paper moneya Chinese innovationwas used in many parts of the empire. It was also common for the Mongols to convert to or adopt the local religions, or at least be religiously tolerant.MONGOL DECLINEIn 1274 and 1281 CE, the Mongols tried again to expand their empirethey invaded Japan. Typhoon winds destroyed their fleet both times, however. The Japanese believed these kamikaze, or sacred winds, had defend them. Despite great military accomplishment, the Mongol Empire lasted hardly ternion or four generations. While the Mongols were successful conquerors, they were poor administrators. Overspending led to inflation in different corners of the empire, and after the death of Kublai, leadership was weak and ineffectual. challenger among the successors of the great Khan further destabilized the empire, and the vast domain was divided among various generals. By 1350 CE, most of the Mong ols huge territory had been reconquered by other armies.RESULTS OF MIGRATION AND communicatingWest African KingdomsThe introduction of the domesticated camel allowed for an increased flow of trade across the Sahara Desert, and as a result, Muslim and North African merchants began to establish commercial relations with West Africa.Ghana (around 500 to 1200 CE)Ghana was a regional state around the 400s or 500s CE, and an increase in trans-Saharan trade led to its growth in power and influence. By 800 CE the many farming villages in the area were united to create the kingdom of Ghana. It became an important commercial site and a center for trade in gold from the south, which it controlled and taxed. In return, it received ivory, slaves, horses, cloth, and salt. As Ghanas wealth increased, it built an army funded by the tax on trade. In the 900s CE, the kings converted to Islam, which led to improved relations with Muslim merchants. Islam was not forced on the people, however, and tradi tional animistic beliefs continued to be important. Those who engaged in trade often converted to Islam. After 1000 CE, Ghana found itself under brush up from northern Berbers and other tribal groups nearby. It was eventually absorbed by the West African kingdom of Mali. Mali (1235 to late 1400s CE)The trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt continued to increase. Mali controlled and taxed all trade. The rulers honored Islam and provided protection and lodging for merchants. The Sundiata is an epic song that tells how the first Mali emperor came to power it was composed and recited by Mali griots or storytellers. The most famous Mali emperor was Mansa Musa, who ruled from 1312 to 1337. He built libraries, Islamic schools, and mosques throughout the kingdom. Timbuktu was the political capital and a regional cultural center of Islamic studies and art for all of West Africa. After 1350 CE, provinces began to assert their independence.